COUNSEL:

Stephen J. Newman, Latham & Watkins, and Robert P. Long, Kinkle, Rodiger & Spriggs, Los Angeles, CA, for the defendants-appellants/appellees.

Howard S. Fredman, Los Angeles, CA, for the plaintiff-appellee/appellant.

Paul Alan Levy, Public Citizen Litigation Group, Washington, DC, for the amicus curiae.

Before WILLIAM C. CANBY, JR., RONALD M. GOULD, and MARSHA S. BERZON, Circuit Judges.

OPINION

BERZON, Circuit Judge.

There is no reason inherent in the technological features of cyberspace why First Amendment and defamation law should apply differently in cyberspace than in the brick and mortar world. Congress, however, has chosen for policy reasons to immunize from liability for defamatory or obscene speech "providers and users of interactive computer services" when the defamatory or obscene material is "provided" by someone else. This case presents the question whether and, if so, under what circumstances a moderator of a listserv and operator of a website who posts an allegedly defamatory e-mail authored by a third party can be held liable for doing so. The case also presents a novel procedural question -- whether the denial of an Anti-SLAPP suit filed pursuant to California law can be appealed prior to a final judgment in the underlying case. After recounting the unusual tale underlying this case, we address each of these questions in turn.

I.

In the summer of 1999, sometime-handyman Robert Smith was working for Ellen Batzel, an attorney licensed to practice in California and North Carolina, at Batzel's house in the North Carolina mountains. Smith recounted that while he was repairing Batzel's truck, Batzel told him that she was "the granddaughter of one of Adolf Hitler's right-hand men." Smith also maintained that as he was painting the walls of Batzel's sitting room he overheard Batzel tell her roommate that she was related to Nazi politician Heinrich Himmler. According to Smith, Batzel told him on another occasion that some of the paintings hanging in her house were inherited. To Smith, these paintings looked old and European.

After assembling these clues, Smith used a computer to look for websites concerning stolen art work and was directed by a search engine to the Museum Security Network ("the Network") website. He thereupon sent the following e- mail message to the Network:

From: Bob Smith [e-mail address omitted]
To: securma@museum-security.org [the Network] [FN 1]
Subject: Stolen Art

Hi there,

I am a building contractor in Asheville, North Carolina, USA. A month ago, I did a remodeling job for a woman, Ellen L. Batzel who bragged to me about being the grand daughter [sic] of 'one of Adolph Hitler's right-hand men.' At the time, I was concentrating on performing my tasks, but upon reflection, I believe she said she was the descendant of Heinrich Himmler.
Ellen Batzel has hundreds of older European paintings on her walls, all with heavy carved wooden frames. She told me she inherited them.
I believe these paintings were looted during WWII and are the rightful legacy of the Jewish people. Her address is [omitted].
I also believe that the descendants of criminals should not be persecuted for the crimes of the [sic] fathers, nor should they benefit. I do not know who to contact about this, so I start with your organization. Please contact me via email [ ... ] if you would like to discuss this matter.

Bob.

[FN 1] We are including this e-mail address because the precise e-mail address used is relevant to our later discussion.

[FN 2] "A listserv is an automatic mailing list service that amounts to an e-mail discussion group.... Subscribers receive and send messages that are distributed to all others on the listserv.... Messages may be automatically posted to the listserv or filtered through the list owner (who may elect not to post messages that are off topic or inappropriate). A listserv, unlike a newsgroup, involves one-to-many messaging, rather than the use of distributed message databases." Ian C. Ballon, E-Commerce and Internet Law: Treatise with Forms, Glossary of Terms, at 30 (2001).

After receiving it, Cremers published Smith's e-mail message to the Network, with some minor wording changes, on the Network listserv. He also posted that listserv, with Smith's message included, on the Network's website. Cremers later included it on the Network listserv and posted a "moderator's message" stating that "the FBI has been informed of the contents of [Smith's] original message."

After the posting, Bob Smith e-mailed a subscriber to the listserv, Jonathan Sazonoff, explaining that he had had no idea that his e-mail would be posted to the listserv or put on the web. Smith told Sazanoff:

I[was] trying to figure out how in blazes I could have posted me [sic] email to [the Network ] bulletin board. I came into MSN through the back door, directed by a search engine, and never got the big picture. I don't remember reading anything about a message board either so I am a bit confused over how it could happen. Every message board to which I have ever subscribed required application, a password, and/or registration, and the instructions explained this is necessary to keep out the advertisers, cranks, and bumbling idiots like me.

Upon discovering that Smith had not intended to post his message, Cremers apologized for the confusion. He told Smith in an e-mail that "[y]ou were not a subscriber to the list and I believe that you did not realize your message would be forwarded to the mailinglist [sic]." Apparently, subscribers send messages for inclusion in the listserv to securma@x54all.nl, a different address from that to which Smith had sent his e-mail contacting the Network. Cremers further explained that he "receive[s] many e-mails each day some of which contain queries [he thinks] interesting enough to forward to the list. [Smith's] was one of those."

Batzel disputes Smith's account of their conversations. She says she is not, and never said she is, a descendant of a Nazi official, and that she did not inherit any art. Smith, she charges, defamed her not because he believed her artwork stolen but out of pique, because Batzel refused to show Hollywood contacts a screenplay he had written.

Batzel claims further that because of Cremers's actions she lost several prominent clients in California and was investigated by the North Carolina Bar Association. Also, she represents that her social reputation suffered. To redress her claimed reputational injuries she filed this lawsuit against Smith, Cremers, the Netherlands Museum Association, [FN 3] and Mosler, Inc. ("Mosler") [FN 4] in federal court in Los Angeles, California.

[FN 3] The Association is described in the complaint as "a business entity of unknown form" in the Netherlands. The Association is not involved in the present appeal.

[FN 4] Mosler is an Ohio based company that manufactures security devices.

Cremers countered with two motions: (1) a motion to strike under the California anti-SLAPP statute, [FN 5] alleging that Batzel's suit was meritless and that the complaint was filed in an attempt to interfere with his First Amendment rights, and (2) a motion to dismiss for lack of personal jurisdiction. The court denied both motions. Cremers then filed this appeal.

[FN 5] Cal.Civ.Proc.Code § 425.16.

II

The district court denied Cremers's motion to dismiss for lack of personal jurisdiction on June 5, 2001. Cremers's notice of appeal, which sought to appeal that order along with the district court's denial of Cremers's anti- SLAPP motion, was filed on July 27, 2001. No extension of time to appeal was sought or granted. The appeal of the June 5 order accordingly is untimely because it was not filed within thirty days of that order. Fed. R.App. P. 4(a)(1)(A).

It is understandable that Cremers did not promptly appeal the denial of his motion to dismiss for lack of personal jurisdiction, because the denial was not an appealable order. See Catlin v. United States, 324 U.S. 229, 236 (1945). Cremers argues, however, that we should review the denial of his motion to dismiss for lack of personal jurisdiction as an issue pendent to his appeal of the denial of his anti-SLAPP motion.

Although our circuit permits the exercise of appellate jurisdiction over otherwise non-appealable orders that are "inextricably intertwined" with another order that is properly appealable, see, e.g., Mendocino Envtl. Ctr. v. Mendocino County, 192 F.3d 1283, 1296-97 (9th Cir.1999), we have interpreted "inextricably intertwined" very narrowly for that purpose. See Cunningham v. Gates, 229 F.3d 1271, 1284 (9th Cir.2000). We require that the two issues: "(a) be so intertwined that we must decide the pendent issue in order to review the claims properly raised on interlocutory appeal ... or (b) resolution of the issue properly raised on interlocutory appeal necessarily resolves the pendent issue." Id. at 1285 (internal citations omitted). The attempted appeal of the denial of the motion to dismiss for lack of personal jurisdiction fails both requirements. We can decide the anti-SLAPP issue entirely independently of the question of personal jurisdiction, and different legal standards apply to each issue. See id. We therefore dismiss Cremers's appeal insofar as it challenges the denial of his motion to dismiss for lack of personal jurisdiction. [FN 6]

[FN 6] Cremers's notice of appeal requests in the alternative that we treat the notice of appeal as a petition for mandamus. So treated, we deny the petition because the question is one that may be reviewed adequately on appeal from final judgment. See Bauman v. United States Dist. Ct., 557 F.2d 650, 657 (9th Cir.1977).

III

A. California's Anti-SLAPP Statute

California law provides for pre-trial dismissal of "SLAPPs": "Strategic Lawsuits against Public Participation." Cal.Civ.Proc.Code § 425.16. These are lawsuits that "masquerade as ordinary lawsuits" but are brought to deter common citizens from exercising their political or legal rights or to punish them for doing so. Wilcox v. Superior Court, 27 Cal.App. 4th 809, 816 (1994), overruled on other grounds by Equilon Enter. v. Consumer Cause, Inc., 29 Cal.4th 53, 52 P.3d 685 (2002) (citations omitted). "The anti-SLAPP statute was enacted to allow for early dismissal of meritless first amendment cases aimed at chilling expression through costly, time-consuming litigation." Metabolife Int'l, Inc. v. Wornick, 264 F.3d 832, 839 (9th Cir.2001).

If the defendant files an anti-SLAPP motion to strike, all discovery proceedings are stayed. See § 425.16(g). A court may, however, permit specified discovery "on noticed motion and for good cause shown." Id. In order to prevail on an anti-SLAPP motion, the defendant is required to make a prima facie showing that the plaintiff's suit arises from an act by the defendant made in connection with a public issue in furtherance of the defendant's right to free speech under the United States or California Constitution. See United States ex rel. Newsham v. Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., 190 F.3d 963, 971 (9th Cir.1999); see also § 425.16(e) (defining "act in furtherance of a person's right of ... free speech.").

The burden then shifts to the plaintiff to establish a reasonable probability that the plaintiff will prevail on his or her defamation claim. See Lockheed, 190 F.3d at 971. "[T]he plaintiff must demonstrate that 'the complaint is legally sufficient and supported by a prima facie showing of facts to sustain a favorable judgment if the evidence submitted by plaintiff is [sic] credited.'" Metabolife, 264 F.3d at 840 (quoting Wilcox v. Superior Court, 33 Cal.Rptr.2d 446, 454).

If the court denies an anti-SLAPP motion to strike, the parties continue with discovery. See § 425.16(g). Once the plaintiff's case has survived the motion, the anti-SLAPP statute no longer applies and the parties proceed to litigate the merits of the action.

B. Jurisdiction

We are presented with the threshold question whether we have jurisdiction over Cremers's interlocutory appeal of the district court's denial of his motion to strike. In California state court, a denial of an anti-SLAPP motion is immediately appealable. See § 425.16(j). The issue before us as a federal court is whether a district court's denial of an anti-SLAPP motion is an immediately appealable "final decision" under 28 U.S.C. § 1291, so that we have jurisdiction to address Cremers' appeal. We conclude that we have jurisdiction to review the denial of an anti-SLAPP motion pursuant to the collateral order doctrine.

In general, a party is entitled only to a single appeal, to be "deferred until final judgment has been entered." See Digital Equip. Corp. v. Desktop Direct, Inc., 511 U.S. 863, 868 (1994). The collateral order doctrine establishes "a narrow class of decisions that do not terminate the litigation, but must, in the interest of achieving a healthy legal system nonetheless be treated as final." Id. at 867 (internal citations and quotation marks omitted). To fall into this narrow class of immediately appealable orders, a district court decision must (1) be "conclusive," (2) "resolve important questions completely separate from the merits," and (3) "render such questions effectively unreviewable on appeal from a final judgment in the underlying action." Id.

In the present case all three factors are met. First, the court's denial of Cremers's anti-SLAPP motion is conclusive as to whether the anti-SLAPP statute required dismissal of Batzel's suit. If an anti-SLAPP motion to strike is granted, the suit is dismissed and the prevailing defendant is entitled to recover his or her attorney's fees and costs. See § 425.16(c). If the motion to strike is denied, the anti-SLAPP statute does not apply and the parties proceed with the litigation.

The district court's denial of Cremers's motion to strike resolved the threshold question whether Batzel's defamation suit should be dismissed by pre- trial motion. Denial of an anti-SLAPP motion resolves a question separate from the merits in that it merely finds that such merits may exist, without evaluating whether the plaintiff's claim will succeed. See § 425.16(b)(3) ( "If the court determines that the plaintiff has established a probability that he or she will prevail on the claim, neither that determination nor the fact of that determination shall be admissible in evidence at any later stage of the case...."). The purpose of an anti-SLAPP motion is to determine whether the defendant is being forced to defend against a meritless claim. The anti-SLAPP issue therefore exists separately from the merits of the defamation claim itself.

Because the anti-SLAPP motion is designed to protect the defendant from having to litigate meritless cases aimed at chilling First Amendment expression, the district court's denial of an anti-SLAPP motion would effectively be unreviewable on appeal from a final judgment. We find it instructive that California's anti-SLAPP statute provides that an order denying an anti-SLAPP motion may be appealed immediately. See § 425.16(j). This provision, along with the legislative history behind § 425.16, demonstrates that California lawmakers wanted to protect speakers from the trial itself rather than merely from liability. As the California Senate Judiciary Committee noted before the law's enactment,

Without [the right of immediate appeal], a defendant will have to incur the cost of a lawsuit before having his or her right to free speech vindicated.... [W]hen a meritorious anti-SLAPP motion is denied, the defendant, under current law, has only two options. The first is to file a writ of appeal, which is discretionary and rarely granted. The second is to defend the lawsuit. If the defendant wins, the anti-SLAPP law is useless and has failed to protect the defendant's constitutional rights.

Cal. Sen. Judiciary Comm. Rep. on AB 1675, at 4. [FN 7]

[FN 7] This report may be found on the internet at www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/99-00/bill/asm/ab__1651-1700 /ab__1675__cfa__19990701__075825__sen__comm.html .

If the defendant were required to wait until final judgment to appeal the denial of a meritorious anti-SLAPP motion, a decision by this court reversing the district court's denial of the motion would not remedy the fact that the defendant had been compelled to defend against a meritless claim brought to chill rights of free expression. Thus, a defendant's rights under the anti- SLAPP statute are in the nature of immunity: They protect the defendant from the burdens of trial, not merely from ultimate judgments of liability.

Because California law recognizes the protection of the anti-SLAPP statute as a substantive immunity from suit, this Court, sitting in diversity, will do so as well. See generally Erie R.R. Co. v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64 (1938). A district court's denial of a claim of immunity, to the extent that it turns on an issue of law, is an appealable final decision within the meaning of 28 U.S.C. § 1291 notwithstanding the absence of a final judgment. See Mitchell v. Forsyth, 472 U.S. 511, 525-27 (1985); see also Estate of Kennedy v. Bell Helicopter Textron, Inc., 283 F.3d 1107, 1111 (9th Cir.2002) (applying the collateral order doctrine to an appeal from an order denying protection under federal statute of repose, on the ground that "an essential aspect of the ... statute of repose is the right to be free from the burdens of trial"). We therefore have jurisdiction to review the district court's denial of Cremers' anti-SLAPP motion.

C. Probability of Success

To resist a motion to strike pursuant to California's anti-SLAPP law, Batzel must demonstrate a probability that she will prevail on the merits of her complaint. Cal.Civ.Proc.Code § 425.16. The district court held that Batzel had made such a showing, and absent 47 U.S.C. § 230, [FN 8] we would be inclined to agree.

[FN 8] All further references are to 47 U.S.C. unless otherwise noted.

Section 230(c)(1) specifies that "[n]o provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider." The provision thereby set limitations on liability under state law for postings on the Internet and other computer networks. The district court declined to extend the legislative grant of immunity pursuant to § 230(c) to Cremers and the Network, holding that the Network is not "an internet service provider" and therefore is not covered by the statute. We do not agree with the district court's reading of § 230.

1. Section 230(c)

We begin with a brief survey of the background of § 230(c), as that background is useful in construing the statutory terms here at issue.

Title V of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, Pub.L. No. 104-104, is known as the "Communications Decency Act of 1996" [the "CDA" or "the Act"]. The primary goal of the Act was to control the exposure of minors to indecent material. See Pub.L. No. 104-104, Title v. (1996); see also H.R.Rep. No. 104-458, at 81-91 (1996); S.Rep. No. 104-230, at 187-193 (1996); S.Rep. No. 104-23, at 9 (1995). Parts of the Act have since been struck down as unconstitutional limitations on free speech, see Reno v. ACLU, 521 U.S. 844 (1997); United States v. Playboy Ent. Group, 529 U.S. 803 (2000), but the section at issue here, § 230, remains intact.

Section 230 was first offered as an amendment by Representatives Christopher Cox (R-Cal.) and Ron Wyden (D-Ore.). See 141 Cong. Rec. H4860 (August 4, 1995). The specific provision at issue here, § 230(c)(1), overrides the traditional treatment of publishers, distributors, and speakers under statutory and common law. As a matter of policy, "Congress decided not to treat providers of interactive computer services like other information providers such as newspapers, magazines or television and radio stations, all of which may be held liable for publishing or distributing obscene or defamatory material written or prepared by others." Blumenthal v.. Drudge, 992 F.Supp. 44, 49 (D.D.C.1998). Absent § 230, a person who published or distributed speech over the Internet could be held liable for defamation even if he or she was not the author of the defamatory text, and, indeed, at least with regard to publishers, even if unaware of the statement. See, e.g., Stratton Oakmont, Inc. v. Prodigy Services Co., 1995 WL 323710 (N.Y.Sup. May 24, 1995) (pre-Communications Decency Act case holding internet service provider liable for posting by third party on one of its electronic bulletin boards). [FN 9] Congress, however, has chosen to treat cyberspace differently. [FN 10]

[FN 9] A bulletin board, in the Internet context, is "a computer-based system giving users access from remote terminals to text and programs contributed by one another and stored centrally." Oxford English Dictionary 642 (2d Ed.1989). Bulletin boards allow users to post messages on the Internet and for others to view them, much like a bulletin board in the off-line world.

[FN 10] We note that some commentators have suggested that Congress intended for § 230(c) to override only publisher, not distributor, liability. See, e.g., Ballon § 42.05[3][B]; Susan Friewald, Comparative Institutional Analysis in Cyberspace: The Case of Intermediary Liability for Defamation, 14 Harv. J.L. & Tech 569, 637-42 (2001) (courts should leave distributor liability intact when applying § 230); David R. Sheridan, Zeran v. AOL and the Effect of Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act upon Liability for Defamation on the Internet, 61 Alb. L.Rev. 147, 167-72 (1997) ("[W]hen Congress said 'publisher,' it meant 'publisher,' and not 'distributor'."). Batzel's complaint refers to Cremers as the "publisher" of Smith's e-mail, and she has not argued that Cremers should be treated as a distributor, perhaps because the standard for distributor liability is generally less favorable for plaintiffs. See Zeran v. America Online, Inc., 129 F.3d 327, 331 (4th Cir.1997). We therefore need not decide whether § 230(c)(1) encompasses both publishers and distributors. We do note that, so far, every court to reach the issue has decided that Congress intended to immunize both distributors and publishers. See Zeran, 129 F.3d at 331-34; Ben Ezra, Weinstein, and Co. v. America Online, Inc., 206 F.3d 980, 986 (10th Cir.2000); Doe v. America Online, Inc., 783 So.2d 1010, 1013-17 (Fla.2001).

(3) The Internet and other interactive computer services offer a forum for a true diversity of political discourse, unique opportunities for cultural development, and myriad avenues for intellectual activity.

(4) The Internet and other interactive computer services have flourished, to the benefit of all Americans, with a minimum of government regulation.

§ 230(a). Similarly, the listed policy objectives of the section include:

(1) to promote the continued development of the Internet and other interactive computer services and other interactive media;

(2) to preserve the vibrant and competitive free market that presently exists for the Internet and other interactive computer services, unfettered by Federal or State regulation.

Consistent with these provisions, courts construing § 230 have recognized as critical in applying the statute the concern that lawsuits could threaten the "freedom of speech in the new and burgeoning Internet medium." Zeran v. America Online, Inc., 129 F.3d 327, 330 (4th Cir.1997). "Section 230 was enacted, in part, to maintain the robust nature of Internet communication, and accordingly, to keep government interference in the medium to a minimum." Id.; see also Ben Ezra, Weinstein, and Co. v. America Online, Inc., 206 F.3d 980, 985n.3. Making interactive computer services and their users liable for the speech of third parties would severely restrict the information available on the Internet. Section 230 therefore sought to prevent lawsuits from shutting down websites and other services on the Internet.

The second reason for enacting § 230(c) was to encourage interactive computer services and users of such services to self-police the Internet for obscenity and other offensive material, so as to aid parents in limiting their children's access to such material. See § 230(b)(4); see also 141 Cong. Rec. H8469-70 (Statements of Representatives Cox, Wyden, and Barton); Zeran, 129 F.3d at 331; Blumenthal, 992 F.Supp. at 52. We recognize that there is an apparent tension between Congress's goals of promoting free speech while at the same time giving parents the tools to limit the material their children can access over the Internet. As a result of this apparent tension, some commentators have suggested that the Fourth Circuit in Zeran imposed the First Amendment goals on legislation that was actually adopted for the speech-restrictive purpose of controlling the dissemination of content over the Internet. See, e.g., Ballon § 42.05[3][B][iv]. These critics fail to recognize that laws often have more than one goal in mind, and that it is not uncommon for these purposes to look in opposite directions. The need to balance competing values is a primary impetus for enacting legislation. Tension within statutes is often not a defect but an indication that the legislature was doing its job. See, e.g., United States v. Kalustian, 529 F.2d 585, 588 (9th Cir.1975) (describing dual and somewhat competing purposes of the Federal wiretap statute of both protecting individual privacy and combating crime).

So, even though the CDA overall may have had the purpose of restricting content, there is little doubt that the Cox-Wyden amendment, which added what ultimately became § 230 to the Act, sought to further First Amendment and e-commerce interests on the Internet while also promoting the protection of minors. See 141 Cong. Rec. H8469-72 (Statements of Representatives Cox, Wyden, Lofgren, and Goodlatte). [FN 11] Fostering the two ostensibly competing purposes here works because parents best can control the material accessed by their children with the cooperation and assistance of Internet service providers ("ISPs") and other providers and users of services on the Internet. [FN 12] Section 230(b)(4) describes this goal: "It is the policy of the United States ... to remove disincentives for the development and utilization of blocking and filtering technologies that empower parents to restrict their children's access to objectionable or inappropriate online material." § 230(b)(4). Some blocking and filtering programs depend on the cooperation of website operators and access providers who label material that appears on their services. [FN 13]

[FN 11] We also note that at least some members of Congress suspected that much, if not most, of the Act would be struck down as unconstitutional. See 141 Cong. Rec. H8470 (the Cox-Wyden amendment sought to provide aid during the "flood of legal challenges" likely to prevent the rest of the Act from having any effect); see also Lawrence Lessig, Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace 174 (1999) (referring to the Act as "[a] law of extraordinary stupidity [that] practically impaled itself on the First Amendment."). That position turned out to be prescient. See Reno, 521 U.S. 844; Playboy Ent. Group, 529 U.S. 803. Quite possibly in anticipation that other aspects of the Act would not survive, the Cox-Wyden amendment attempted to control content distributed to minors in a manner consistent with the First Amendment, by encouraging Internet companies to police the Internet for themselves or to assist parents in doing so. See 141 Cong. Rec. H8469-72.

[FN 12] An ISP provides its subscribers with access to the Internet. Such service providers include, for example, America Online, commonly referred to as "AOL," and Earthlink, as well as numerous other providers.

[FN 13] The vast amount of material on the Internet makes it difficult for an independent board to rate all of the material, as the Motion Picture Association of America can do for the much smaller number of movies distributed. Some filtering systems therefore rely on self-labeling. See R. Polk Wagner, Filters and The First Amendment, 83 Minn. L.Rev. 755, 70- 65 (1999). Zoning, another approach to controlling content on the Internet by creating child-free zones accessible only with digital identification certificates and age verification, also works best with the cooperation of website operators and service providers. See Lawrence Lessig, What Things Regulate Speech: CDA 2.0 v. Filtering, 38 Jurimetrics J. 629 (1998); see also Reno, 521 U.S. at 886-97 (O'Connor, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (describing zoning approach to protecting minors from harmful Internet content).

Without the immunity provided in Section 230(c), users and providers of interactive computer services who review material could be found liable for the statements of third parties, yet providers and users that disavow any responsibility would be free from liability. Compare Stratton Oakmont, 1995 WL 323710 (holding a service provider liable for speech appearing on its service because it generally reviewed posted content) with Cubby, Inc. v. CompuServe, Inc., 776 F.Supp. 135 (S.D.N.Y.1991) (holding a service provider not liable for posted speech because the provider was simply the conduit through which defamatory statements were distributed).

In particular, Congress adopted § 230(c) to overrule the decision of a New York state court in Stratton Oakmont, 1995 WL 323710. Stratton Oakmont held that Prodigy, an Internet access provider that ran a number of bulletin boards, could be held responsible for libelous statements posted on its "Money Talk" bulletin board by an unidentified person. Id. The court relied on the fact that Prodigy held itself out as a service that monitored its bulletin boards for offensive content and removed such content. Id. at *2, *4. Prodigy used filtering software and assigned board leaders to monitor the postings on each bulletin board. Id. at *1-*2. Because of Prodigy's active role in monitoring its bulletin boards, the court found, Prodigy was a publisher for purposes of state libel law and therefore could be held liable for any defamatory statements posted on the website. Id. at *4.

Although Stratton was a defamation case, Congress was concerned with the impact such a holding would have on the control of material inappropriate for minors. If efforts to review and omit third-party defamatory, obscene or inappropriate material make a computer service provider or user liable for posted speech, then website operators and Internet service providers are likely to abandon efforts to eliminate such material from their site. See S.Rep. No. 104-230, at 194 (1996) ("One of the specific purposes of [Section 230] is to overrule Stratton-Oakmont v. Prodigy and any other similar decisions...."); H.R. Conf. Rep. No. 104-458, at 194 (1996) ("The conferees believe that [decisions such as Stratton Oakmont ] create serious obstacles to the important federal policy of empowering parents to determine the content of communications their children receive through interactive computer services."); 141 Cong. Rec. at H84691-70 (statement of Rep. Cox) (referring to disincentives created by Stratton Oakmont decision); see also Zeran, 129 F.3d at 331 (emphasizing that § 230 was adopted to overrule Stratton Oakmont, and to provide incentives to self-regulate the dissemination of offensive material); Harvey L. Zuckman et al., Modern Communication Law 615 (1999) (observing that it is "crystal clear that [Section 230 was] designed to change the result in future cases like Stratton Oakmont "). [FN 14]

[FN 14] Although not relevant to the current case, § 230(c)(2) further encourages good samaritans by protecting service providers and users from liability for claims arising out of the removal of potentially "objectionable" material from their services. See § 230(c)(2). This provision insulates service providers from claims premised on the taking down of a customer's posting such as breach of contract or unfair business practices. Cf. 17 U.S.C. § 512(g)(1) (providing similar protection for service providers who take down material alleged to violate copyright laws); H.R.Rep. No. 105-551, at 25 (1998).